Posted: February 28th, 2023

CJASR4

Administration and Management in Criminal Justice

Chapter 6 Outline

1. Work motivation

a. Set of forces, internal and external to an individual, that drive the person to behave in a certain manner (presumably, meeting organizational needs) (pg. 165)

b. Two approaches to studying work motivation

i. Content/needs theories: address innate/inherent needs that lead to motivation

ii. Process theories: address the interaction of needs and behavior; how to enhance motivation

2. Content/needs theories

a. Maslow’s hierarchy of needs

i. Levels

1. Physiological needs: food, water, shelter

2. Safety needs: free from harm; desire for security

3. Belonging needs: friendship, love, affection

4. Esteem needs: self image, social image

5. Self-actualization needs: reaching potential

ii. Operation

1. Satisfaction progression process: lowest unmet need is the motivator

2. Self-actualizers want more; will continue to be motivated

3. Overall, evidence supporting the hierarchy is limited

b. Alderfer’s Existence-Relatedness-Growth (ERG) theory

i. Three categories

1. Existence needs

2. Relatedness needs

3. Growth needs

ii. Operation
1. Satisfaction progression process: lowest unmet need is the motivator

2. Frustration-regression sequence: those consistently frustrated in pursuit of needs will regress to next lower category

c. Herzberg’s motivator-hygiene theory

i. Two factors

1. Motivators: satisfy growth and esteem needs

2. Hygiene factors: cause dissatisfaction

ii. Operation

1. Dealing with hygiene factors will not lead to motivation; it will only prevent dissatisfaction

2. Must focus on motivators

d. McClelland’s Theory of Learned Needs

i. Achievement

ii. Power

iii. Affiliation

3. Process theories: Link needs to worker behaviors

a. Expectancy theory

i. Parts

1. Valence: does a person value the outcomes?

2. Instrumentality: does a person understand the behaviors that will lead to outcomes?

3. Expectancy: does a person have the ability and opportunity?

ii. Operation

1. Works in a multiplicative fashion

2. All factors must be high in order for motivation to be high

b. Equity theory

i. Parts

1. Inputs: expectation of effort required to do job

2. Output: expectation of what worker will receive for effort

ii. Operation

1. Input/outcome ratios are compared

2. Overpayment v. underpayment inequity

c. Procedural justice theory

i. Addresses fairness of procedures used in dealing with grievances, disputes, performance measurement, etc.

ii. Actual outcome is less important

d. Reinforcement theory

i. People repeat pleasurable and avoid painful behavior

ii. Part

1. Positive reinforcement

2. Escape or avoidance reinforcement

3. Repeated non-reinforcement

4. Punishment

4. Workplace design

a. Job design

i. Scientific management

ii. Job enlargement (horizontal job loading)

iii. Job enrichment (vertical job loading)

iv. Job characteristics model: design job to be intrinsically motivating

1. Skill variety

2. Task identity

3. Task significance

4. Autonomy

5. Feedback

b. Goal setting

i. Goal: target or desired end result

ii. Goal characteristics

1. Specificity

2. Difficulty

iii. Management by objectives (MBO)

5. Performance evaluations

a. Link worker inputs to rewards

b. Fits process theories

i. Expectancy theory

ii. Equity theory

iii. Procedural justice theory

c. Issues

i. Formal v. informal appraisals

ii. What factors are included in evaluations?

1. Traits

2. Behaviors

3. Results

iii. Who does the appraisal?

1. Self appraisal

2. Peer appraisal

3. Subordinate appraisal

4. Customer/client appraisal

5. 360-degree appraisal

Administration and Management in Criminal Justice

Chapter 7 Outline

1. What is leadership?

a. Difficult to define; no consistent definition

b. Two parts to many definitions

i. Involves influencing members of a group

ii. Involves directing members’ efforts to the achievement of organizational goals

c. What do leaders do?

2. Explaining leadership

a. Trait approach

i. Traits/characteristics linked with effective leadership

ii. Traits/characteristics were primarily inborn

ii. Examples

: honesty, integrity, motivation, people-skills

iv. Evidence is questionable—are traits linked with leadership behaviors?

b. Behavioral approach

i. Leadership behavior rather than leadership characteristics

ii. Ohio State University studies identified two different dimensions

1. Consideration

2. Initiating structure

iii. Research studies were not able to identify the best combination of the two dimensions.

c. Contingency theories/situational leadership

i. There is no one best style of leadership; it all depends

ii. Examples

1. Fielder’s contingency theory

a. Styles

i. Relationship oriented

ii. Task oriented

b. Style determined by least preferred coworker (LPC) scale

c. Contingency variables

i. Group atmosphere

ii. Task structure

iii. Position power

d. Operation

i. When all are favorable or unfavorable= task-oriented

ii. When contingencies are mixed = relationship-oriented

2. Hersey and Blanchard’s contingency theory

a. Leadership styles

i. Telling

ii. Selling

iii. Participating

iv. Delegating

b. Contingencies

i. Psychological readiness: willingness/eagerness to perform task

ii. Task readiness: ability to perform task

c. Leadership style must adapt to readiness of followers

3. Path-goal theory

a. Leadership behavior

i. Supportive

ii. Directive

iii. Participative

iv. Achievement-oriented

b. Contingencies

i. Personal characteristics of group members: skills, abilities, willingness

ii. Work environment: clarity of task; power

c. Operation depends on contingencies; for example, use a directive style when task is unclear. The goal is to allow workers to achieve goals

4. Vroom and Yetton’s model

a. Focuses on decision making and whether subordinates should be included in decision making to improve the process

b. A decision tree is used considering a variety of factors (e.g., time available) in order to determine level of subordinate involvement

d. Transactional leadership theory

i. Focuses on interaction between leader and follower

ii. Two interaction processes

1. Contingent reward leadership: manager helps subordinate reach goals by clarifying expectations, offering support, and providing structure

2. Management by exception: manager interacts with subordinates only when subordinate deviates from expectations (fail to adhere to standards)

e. Change leadership theories

i. Leaders can change an entire organization

ii. Examples

1. Charismatic leadership

a. Produce change by having personality characteristics that attract followers

b. Earn the trust and confidence of followers

2. Transformational leadership

a. Change the organization by motivating workers to achieve at higher levels

b. Process

i. Increase subordinates’ awareness of importance of task

ii. Increase subordinates’ awareness of their need for personal development

iii. Motivating subordinates to fulfill their goals and be a part of the organization’s success

c. Dimensions

i. Inspirational motivation

ii. Intellectual stimulation

iii. Idealized influence

iv. Individualized consideration

3. Leadership styles

a. Most famous is the managerial grid (Blake and Mouton)

b. Two dimensions

i. Concern for people

ii. Concern for results

c. Combinations

i. Contribute and commit

ii. Control and dominate

iii. Yield and comply

iv. Balance and compromise

v. Evade and elude

4. Leadership skills

a. The assumption is that these can be taught through training/education

b. Examples from the Competing Values Framework

i. Clan skills

ii. Adhocracy skills

iii. Hierarchy skills

iv. Market skills

c. Other skills

i. Technical skills

ii. Human resource management skills

iii. Conceptual skills

5. Criminal justice organizations

a. Current status: authoritarian dominates

b. Emerging research suggests worker preference for transformational or participative styles

Administration and Management in Criminal Justice
Chapter 6: Motivation

Work Motivation

Defined

Set of forces, internal and external to an individual, that drive the person to behave in a certain manner (presumably, meeting organizational needs) (pg. 165)

Two general approaches to studying work motivation

Content/need theories

Process theories

Administration and Management in Criminal Justice
Chapter 6: Motivation

Content/Needs Theories

Address what people want– their needs– that motivate them to behave in a certain way

Theories

Maslow’s hierarchy of needs

Alderfer’s Existence-Relatedness-Growth (ERG) theory

Herzberg’s motivation-hygiene theory

McClelland’s theory of learned needs

Administration and Management in Criminal Justice
Chapter 6: Motivation

Maslow’s Needs Hierarchy
Administration and Management in Criminal Justice
Chapter 6: Motivation

Administration and Management in Criminal Justice
Chapter 6: Motivation

Maslow’s Needs Hierarchy (cont’d)

Satisfaction-progression process

Lowest unmet need in hierarchy is primary motivator

Once met, the next unmet need becomes the motivator

Once individual’s self-actualize, they want more rather than less

Questions

Do needs cluster this nicely? Not necessarily

Is there empirical support for this model? Not necessarily

Example: A police officer is willing to keep silent on a colleague’s misconduct (belonging needs) but, in doing so, risks his own job (security needs are sacrificed)

Administration and Management in Criminal Justice
Chapter 6: Motivation

Alderfer’s ERG Theory

Existence-Relatedness-Growth

Existence needs: physiological and security needs for material things

Relatedness needs: need for interpersonal security and belongingness

Growth needs: development of human potential

Operation

Satisfaction-progression process (like Maslow)

Frustration-regression sequence

Administration and Management in Criminal Justice
Chapter 6: Motivation

Frustration-regression sequence suggests that if goals are routinely frustrated or blocked, the person might regress back to the next lower category.
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Herzberg’s Motivator-Hygiene Theory
Administration and Management in Criminal Justice
Chapter 6: Motivation

Administration and Management in Criminal Justice
Chapter 6: Motivation

Herzberg’s Motivator-Hygiene Theory (cont’d)

Motivators: satisfy growth and esteem needs

Responsibility

Achievement

Personal growth

Hygiene factors: if not attended to, will create dissatisfaction; will not produce job satisfaction/motivation

Pay

Benefits

Working conditions

Relationship with supervisors

Administration and Management in Criminal Justice
Chapter 6: Motivation

McClelland’s Theory of Learned Needs

Some needs are learned or reinforced through experience

Three types of needs

Achievement

Workers want to achieve goals independently

They set moderate (challenging but reachable) goals

They require feedback to know what they have accomplished

Administration and Management in Criminal Justice
Chapter 6: Motivation

McClelland’s Theory of Learned Needs (cont’d)

Power

Personalized: power for own sake; status

Socialized: power for good of others; to improve society

Affiliation

Desire approval and reassurance from others

Conform to wishes of others whose friendships they value

Interest in feelings of others

Administration and Management in Criminal Justice
Chapter 6: Motivation

Summary of Content Theories

People have internal and learned needs and are motivated by unmet needs

Manager motivates by communicating that certain behaviors will allow workers to meet these needs

Administration and Management in Criminal Justice
Chapter 6: Motivation

Process Theories

Link the needs identified in the different needs theories to actual worker behavior

Theories

Expectancy theory

Equity theory

Procedural justice theory

Reinforcement theory

Administration and Management in Criminal Justice
Chapter 6: Motivation

Expectancy Theory

Parts of the theory

Valence: how desirable are the outcomes?

An officer may not be motivated to participate in the promotional process because the extra pay is not worth the extra responsibilities

Instrumentality: will work result in outcome?

An officer does not attend community meetings because it is not valued by supervisor; work will not likely lead to valued outcomes

Expectancies: does a person have opportunity and ability to complete the work?

An officer does not attend community meetings because she is overwhelmed by the number of 911 calls; she lacks opportunity

Administration and Management in Criminal Justice
Chapter 6: Motivation

Expectancy Theory (cont’d)

Operates in a multiplicative fashion

For motivation to be highest, all three factors must be high.

Individual must value rewards

Individual must see connection between performance and outcomes

Individual must have opportunity and ability to perform/achieve outcomes

Administration and Management in Criminal Justice
Chapter 6: Motivation

Equity Theory

Parts

Inputs: effort required to do the job (expected)

Outputs: outcome received for doing job (expected)

Operation

Worker compares own input/outcome ratio to others

Inequity occurs when ratios are different

Overpayment inequity

Underpayment inequity

Administration and Management in Criminal Justice
Chapter 6: Motivation

Overpayment inequity: a person receives more outputs given their inputs
Underpayment inequity: a person receives fewer outputs given their inputs
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Procedural Justice Theory

Focuses less on the actual outcomes and more on the procedures used to arrive at those outcomes

Workers will be motivated if procedures to resolve disputes, measure performance, etc. are fair, regardless of outcome

Treatment of workers with honesty, courtesy, etc.

Transparency and objectiveness in process

Administration and Management in Criminal Justice
Chapter 6: Motivation

Reinforcement Theory

People repeat rewarding behavior and avoid unpleasant behavior

Techniques of reinforcement

Positive reinforcement: reward behavior

Escape or avoidance reinforcement: painful or unpleasant consequences will be removed upon completion of task

Repeated non-reinforcement: eliminates undesirable behaviors

Punishment: present unpleasant consequence to remove undesirable behavior

Administration and Management in Criminal Justice
Chapter 6: Motivation

Workplace Design

Can the job be designed so that accomplishment meets individual and organizational needs?

Job design

Scientific management: use less effort to accomplish task; experience greater outcomes (extrinsic motivation)

Job enlargement: increasing the number of tasks associated with the job (horizontal job loading)

Job enrichment: give workers supervisor-type responsibilities (vertical job loading)

Administration and Management in Criminal Justice
Chapter 6: Motivation

More Workplace Design

Job Characteristics Model

Created in 1970s by Hackman and Oldham

Jobs with certain characteristics are self-motivating, self-rewarding (intrinsically motivating)

Core job dimensions

Skill variety

Task identity

Task significance

Autonomy

Feedback

Administration and Management in Criminal Justice
Chapter 6: Motivation

More Workplace Design

Goal setting

Elements

Goal: “a target or desired end result accomplished through one’s behavior and actions” (pg. 187)

Goal characteristics

Specificity: can be measured objectively

Difficulty: more difficulty = higher levels of effort

Management by objectives (MBO)

Administration and Management in Criminal Justice
Chapter 6: Motivation

Performance Evaluations

Evaluate workers’ input in order to distribute rewards (outcomes)

Fits within process theories of motivation

Expectancy theory: workers know what is valued

Equity theory: workers receive outcomes consistent with inputs

Procedural justice theory: evaluation process is fair/transparent

Administration and Management in Criminal Justice
Chapter 6: Motivation

Performance Appraisal Issues

Types

Formal: detailed, less frequent, determined in advance

Informal: more general, more frequent, ad hoc

What factors are included in evaluations?

Traits

Behaviors

Results

Administration and Management in Criminal Justice
Chapter 6: Motivation

Who Should Conduct the Appraisals?

Self appraisal

Worker evaluates himself/herself

Peer appraisal

Coworkers perform evaluation (conflicts of interest?)

Subordinate appraisal

Evaluations by those working under supervisor

Customer/client appraisal

Provided by outsiders who have contact with the organization

360 degree appraisal

Multiple sources are used and aggregated

Administration and Management in Criminal Justice
Chapter 6: Motivation

Administration and Management in Criminal Justice
Chapter 7: Leadership

What is Leadership

Very difficult to define; no agreement on definition

Two characteristics of leadership

Influencing members of a group

Directing the group’s effort toward the achievement of organizational goals

Administration and Management in Criminal Justice
Chapter 7: Leadership

What do Leaders do? How is Leadership Behavior Explained?

Some examples

They change follower behaviors

They overcome resistance

They work toward the achievement of goals

The coordinate ideas, people, and resources

How do we explain leadership behavior?

Traits

Behaviors

Contingency theories

Transactional leadership

Change leadership theories (e.g., transformational leadership)

Administration and Management in Criminal Justice
Chapter 7: Leadership

Trait Theories: Overview

Certain characteristics or traits are assumed to be linked with effective leadership

Implication Leaders were born rather than made since characteristics were inherent in person

Examples

Honesty

Integrity

Sense of achievement

Self confidence

People skills

Administration and Management in Criminal Justice
Chapter 7: Leadership

Trait Theories: Criticisms and Current Status

Focused on what people are rather than what they do

A police office is promoted to sergeant based on exam scores. Does their intelligence necessarily translate into strong leadership behaviors?

Research has not consistently found links between traits and leadership

Administration and Management in Criminal Justice
Chapter 7: Leadership

Behavioral Approaches: Overview

Focus on actual leadership behavior rather than characteristics

Ohio State University studies identified two different dimensions of leadership behavior

Consideration: tend to employee needs; caring; two way communication

Initiating structure: set goals and standards of performance; focused on completing task

Problem: studies could not determine best combination of behaviors that resulted in positive outcomes

Administration and Management in Criminal Justice
Chapter 7: Leadership

Contingency Theories

Also referred to as situational theories

Summary

There is no one best style of leadership

The best style depends (it is “contingent” upon) the situation

Examples of contingency theories (differ based on the contingencies or variables considered)

Fiedler’s contingency theory

Hersey and Blanchard’s contingency theory

Path-goal theory

Vroom and Yetton’s model

Administration and Management in Criminal Justice
Chapter 7: Leadership

Fielder’s Contingency Theory

Two leadership styles: determined by least preferred co-worker scale (positive description=relationship; less positive=task)

Relationship-oriented: similar to consideration

Task-oriented: similar to initiating structure

Contingency variables

Group atmosphere

Task structure

Position power

Administration and Management in Criminal Justice
Chapter 7: Leadership

Fielder’s Contingency Theory (cont’d)

Operation

When all contingencies are favorable or unfavorable, a leader should adopt a task-oriented style.

When contingencies are mixed, a relationship-oriented approach should be used.

Criticisms

The LPC measure suggests that leadership is one dimensional (a person is high in one style or the other)

LPC score is a trait that does not change much; a person’s style is fixed

Administration and Management in Criminal Justice
Chapter 7: Leadership

Hersey and Blanchard’s Contingency Theory

Leadership styles

Telling

Selling

Participating

Delegating

Contingencies

Psychological readiness: are followers willing/eager/confident to perform task?

Task readiness: are followers able to perform task?

Administration and Management in Criminal Justice
Chapter 7: Leadership

Hersey and Blanchard’s Contingency Theory (cont’d)
Administration and Management in Criminal Justice
Chapter 7: Leadership

Administration and Management in Criminal Justice
Chapter 7: Leadership

Path-Goal Theory

Leadership behavior

Supportive: open, friendly

Directive: telling workers what to do

Participative: consults workers; allows them to participate in decision-making

Achievement-oriented: trust workers to be highly productive

Contingencies

Personal characteristics of group members: skill, abilities, willingness to perform

Work environment: clarity of task; power

Style depends on contingencies as examples illustrate

Unclear task requires directive behavior

Achievement-oriented style used when workers are confident and able to perform task

Administration and Management in Criminal Justice
Chapter 7: Leadership

Vroom and Yetton’s Model

Leadership involves effective decision-making

Quality of decisions determines whether goals are achieved

Including subordinates in decision-making can improve process

Amount of subordinate involvement depends upon a variety of factors including:

Amount of information available to subordinates

Amount of time available to make decisions

Administration and Management in Criminal Justice
Chapter 7: Leadership

Transactional Leadership Theory

Focuses on interaction between leader and followers

Two interaction processes

Contingent reward leadership: manager helps subordinate reach goals by providing structure, support, goals

Management by exception: manager interacts only when subordinate deviates from expectations (e.g., violates standards)

Active

Passive

Administration and Management in Criminal Justice
Chapter 7: Leadership

Active- try to anticipate mistakes
Passive- provide negative feedback at performance evaluation time
*

Change Leadership Theories

Rather than just focus on how leaders and groups interact, these theories focus on how leaders can change an entire organization

Examples (collectively called outstanding leadership theories)

Charismatic leadership

Transformational leadership

Administration and Management in Criminal Justice
Chapter 7: Leadership

Charismatic Leadership

Generate organizational change by having personality characteristics that draw people in (motivating/inspiring)

Earn the trust and confidence of followers

Motivate followers to aspire to higher levels of motivation (recall Maslow’s hierarchy)

Administration and Management in Criminal Justice
Chapter 7: Leadership

William Bratton, former NYPD and LAPD commissioner, is an example.
*

Transformational Leadership

Leaders work to change the organization by motivating subordinates to achieve higher levels of performance

Process for inspiring subordinates

Increase their awareness of the importance of the task

Make them aware of their own need for growth and development

Motivate them to fulfill their growth and development needs and be a part of the organization’s success

Additional elements: inspirational motivation; intellectual stimulation; idealized influence; individualized consideration

Administration and Management in Criminal Justice
Chapter 7: Leadership

Leadership Styles

One of the most famous examples of leadership style is the Managerial Grid (Blake and Mouton)

Two axis in the grid

Concern for people (consideration)

Concern for results (initiating structure)

Combinations result in five leadership styles

Team management: high people, high results

Control and dominate: low people, high results

Yield and comply: high people, low results

Balance and compromise: mid-range people and results

Evade and elude: low people and low results

Administration and Management in Criminal Justice
Chapter 7: Leadership

Leadership Skills

The assumption is that these can be developed through training/education

Derived from the Competing Values Framework

Clan skills: interpersonal skills

Adhocracy skills: address future issues and promote change (e.g., create a vision)

Hierarchy skills: manage time/stress, keep control

Market skills: motivate others; manage external relationships

Administration and Management in Criminal Justice
Chapter 7: Leadership

Criminal Justice Organizations

Generally dominated by authoritarian (transactional) leadership approaches

A growing body of research suggest that criminal justice workers prefer more transformation or participative styles

Results in higher productivity and job satisfaction

Administration and Management in Criminal Justice
Chapter 7: Leadership

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