Posted: February 28th, 2023

CJSAP1

Administration and Management in Criminal Justice
Chapter 8: Communication

Communication Basics

Definition

“process by which ideas, thoughts, and information are exchanged and understood between two or more entities” (pg. 250)

Communication process (see next slide)

Sender encodes information/idea into message

Sends it via a channel to a receiver

Receiver decodes message and interprets its meaning

Feedback may be offered to let the sender know if message was received as intended

One-way communication: no feedback provided

Two-way communication: feedback provided

Administration and Management in Criminal Justice
Chapter 8: Communication

The Communication Process
Administration and Management in Criminal Justice
Chapter 8: Communication
Allen & Sawhney, 2010, pg. 251

Administration and Management in Criminal Justice
Chapter 8: Communication

The Importance of Communication to Organizations

Provide information

911 dispatchers provide updates to responding officers

Warden appraises correctional officer’s performance

Motivate others

Poor communication may affect motivation and lead to organizational pathology such as absenteeism and turnover

Coordinate tasks

SWAT team leader can assign tasks and roles to team members before serving a high-risk warrant

Administration and Management in Criminal Justice
Chapter 8: Communication

Interpersonal Communication

Oral or verbal communication

Includes face-to-face and telephone communication

Example: A crime victim stands up in open court and explains the pains caused by the offender

Written communication

Includes letters, memos, reports, manuals, etc.

Example: An officer produces a written probable cause affidavit to send to a judge

Administration and Management in Criminal Justice
Chapter 8: Communication

Interpersonal Communication (cont’d)

Nonverbal communication

Includes actions, gestures, symbols, and behaviors

Example: Airline security personal decide to administer extra screening to a person due to his nervous behavior and actions which suggest attempts to hide something

Administration and Management in Criminal Justice
Chapter 8: Communication

Communication Channels

Can be organized according to “channel richness”

Three elements of channel richness

Channel can handle multiple cues at the same time: face-to-face allows receiver to decode verbal, non-verbal, and even written cues

Channel allows for rapid, two-way communication: face-to-face allows for this, letters do not

Channel allows for personal focus of communication: letters may not be viewed by a single receiver

Administration and Management in Criminal Justice
Chapter 8: Communication

The Channel Richness Hierarchy
Administration and Management in Criminal Justice
Chapter 8: Communication

Administration and Management in Criminal Justice
Chapter 8: Communication

Organizational Communication: Formal

Communication networks flow according to the chain of command visible in organizational charts

Vertical from supervisors to subordinates or vice versa

Horizontal across units

Administration and Management in Criminal Justice
Chapter 8: Communication
Source: Allen & Sawhney, 2010, p. 259

Administration and Management in Criminal Justice
Chapter 8: Communication

Communication Networks

Recurring patterns of communication in groups

Four types of horizontal communication networks

Wheel

One person distributes messages to all others

Other group members have no direct contact with each other, only indirect contact through a single person

Examples: 911 dispatcher; correctional officer in control booth

Administration and Management in Criminal Justice
Chapter 8: Communication

Communication Networks (cont’d)

Four types of horizontal communication networks

Chain

Visible in sequential tasks

Communication is with group members either immediately before or after in the process

Example: multiple prosecutors handle a single case with one handling pretrial procedures, another handling trial work, and another addressing appeals

Administration and Management in Criminal Justice
Chapter 8: Communication

Communication Networks (cont’d)

Four types of horizontal communication networks

Circle

Occurs among individuals similar on some dimension such as seating arrangements or expertise

Example: Legal team members meet with one another according to the actual case

All-channel

Every group member communicates with every other

Example: SWAT team members

Administration and Management in Criminal Justice
Chapter 8: Communication

Informal Communication

Communication occurs outside of the paths prescribed in organizational charts

Examples

Management by wandering around

Talk directly to front-line workers, avoiding the restrictions of formal vertical and horizontal channels

The grapevine

Spontaneous communication that arises from social interactions

Administration and Management in Criminal Justice
Chapter 8: Communication

Individual Barriers to Effective Communication

Use of jargon

Lack of consensus on definition of terminology

Example: A police department communicates the number of burglaries to the FBI for inclusion in the Uniform Crime Reports yet definitions of burglary vary

Use of an incorrect channel

Noise in channel can lead to challenges

Example: static on radios prevents two officers from talking to one another

Administration and Management in Criminal Justice
Chapter 8: Communication

Individual Barriers to Effective Communication (cont’d)

Filtering/Information distortion

Sender does not communicate entire message/alters the message

Example: An officer does not pass along the whereabouts of suspect to detective in the hopes of making the arrest himself

Lack of appropriate feedback

No ability to send quality feedback after message is decoded

Example: Dispatcher does not know whether call was received by officer who does not reply

Poor listening

Receiver fails to grasp verbal and nonverbal components of message

Example: A distracted correctional officer ignores radio communications

Administration and Management in Criminal Justice
Chapter 8: Communication

Organizational Barriers to Effective Communication

Individual insensitivity to cultural diversity

Ethnocentrism: belief that one’s own cultural components are superior to those of others

Linguistic style: person’s way of speaking (tone, speed, choice of words)

Organizational culture of mistrust

When workers distrust one another, communications are marked by difficulties and defensiveness

Administration and Management in Criminal Justice
Chapter 8: Communication

Communication in Learning Organizations

For-profit companies tend to embrace the view that ideas can come from anywhere in the organization

Criminal justice organizations have not generally adopted this view– they assume that ideas come from within the formal communication network

There is a slow movement toward more openness of communications in criminal justice agencies

Administration and Management in Criminal Justice
Chapter 8: Communication

Outline

1. Communication basics

a. Defined: “process by which ideas, thoughts, and information are exchanged and understood between two or more entities” (pg. 250)

b. Parts of the process

i. Sender

ii. Receiver

iii. Message

iv. Encoding/decoding

v. Feedback

vi. Channel

2. Why is communication so important to organizations?

a. Provide information

b. Motivate workers

c. Coordinate tasks

3. Forms of interpersonal communication

a. Oral or verbal communication: telephone calls, face-to-face interaction

b. Written communication: memos, reports, policy manuals, etc.

c. Nonverbal communication

4. Communication Channels

a. What determines richness of channel?

i. Can channel handle multiple cues?

ii. Does it allow for rapid, two-way communication?

iii. Can the communication be focused on a single receiver?

b. Types (ordered from most rich to least rich)

i. Face-to-face

ii. Video conferencing

iii. Telephone conversations

iv. Email

v. Written letters and memos

5. Organizational communication

a. Formal : follows organizational chart

i. Types

1. Vertical (upward and downward)

2. Horizontal

ii. Communication networks

1. Wheel: one person distributes all messages

2. Chain: communicate sequentially with people before or after in the process

3. Circle: individuals communicate to others based on similarities on some dimension such as areas of expertise

4. All-channel: all members communicate with all other members

b. Informal: communication outside of paths prescribed in organizational charts

i. Management by walking around

ii. The grapevine

6. Barriers to effective communication

a. Individual barriers

i. Use of jargon: no consensus on terminology

ii. Use of incorrect channel: noise in channel

iii. Filtering: sender does not communicate entire message

iv. Lack of appropriate feedback: no channel to confirm message as interpreted

v. Poor listening: receiver is not grasping verbal and nonverbal components of message

b. Organizational barriers

i. Individual insensitivity to cultural diversity

1. Ethnocentrism

2. Linguistic style

ii. Organizational culture of mistrust

7. Communication in learning organizations

A Grant Project

Student’s name

Institution affiliation

Course

Instructor’s name

Date

A Grant Project

I have chosen the Department of Justice as my agency for a grant writing project. The Department of Justice is responsible for promoting safety and justice for all Americans by enforcing the law, protecting civil rights, and providing leadership in preventing crime. The Department of Justice has a number of needs, including crime prevention, community policing, criminal justice system reform, youth justice reform, and improving the criminal justice system (Dao & Dandurand, 2021). One grant that could help the Department of Justice meet its needs is the Community Oriented Policing Services (COPS) grant. Police departments all throughout the country may use the money from this grant program to employ and train community outreach personnel who will concentrate on deterring crime and citizen participation (Allen & Sawhney, 2009). This grant would be beneficial to the Department of Justice because it would allow them to hire and train more community policing officers to help reduce crime in communities.

The US Department of Justice provides funding for the COPS grant, which is managed by the Office of Community Oriented Policing Services (Johnson, 2019). The funding is meant to assist police departments in recruiting and training community police personnel. The grant provides funding for hiring, rehiring, and training of community policing officers who focus on crime prevention and community engagement. By increasing the number of community policing officers, the COPS grant can help reduce crime in communities and improve public safety.

A grant request must be succumbed to the Office of Community Oriented Policing Services as part of the COPS grant application procedure. The application must include a detailed explanation of the anticipated project and its goals, a detailed budget, and other information. Applicants must also provide proof of the law enforcement agency’s aptitude to efficaciously carry out the project. Once the application is approved, the grantee will receive a grant award and will be required to provide reports on the progress of the project.

The COPS grant is an excellent way for the Department of Justice to meet its needs. The grant can offer funds for the hiring and training of community policing personnel by regional police departments who can focus on crime prevention and community engagement (Koslicki, 2022). By hiring and training these officers, the Department of Justice can help reduce crime in communities and improve public safety. The COPS grant is a great opportunity for law enforcement agencies to increase their capacity to serve the public and make their communities safer.

References

Allen, J. M., & Sawhney, R. (2009).
Administration and management in criminal justice: A service quality approach. Sage.

https://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=W4CNgdaXRKcC&oi=fnd&pg=PR1&dq=Administration+and+Management+in+Criminal+Justice&ots=UEPU4yGNk9&sig=11XfS94CFc0lARWQ6WZYeeXtVQ8

Dao, L. T., & Dandurand, Y. (2021). Social, Cultural and Systemic Barriers to Child Justice Reform: Lessons from Vietnam.
Youth Justice, 14732254211036196.

https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/14732254211036196

Johnson, W. H. (2019). Community Engagement in Policing.

https://shsu-ir.tdl.org/handle/20.500.11875/2893

Koslicki, W. M. (2022). Recruiting the warrior cop: Assessing predictors of highly militarized recruitment videos.
Journal of criminal justice,
79, 101896.

https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0047235222000162

Administration and Management in Criminal Justice
Chapter 4: Environmental Influences

Criminal Justice as an Open System

Criminal justice system organizations operate within a larger environment comprised of:

Funding opportunities

Technological advancements

Cultural and demographic characteristics

Legal decisions

Unions and union negotiations

Political decisions

U.S. Supreme Court (not addressed here)

Media (not addressed here)

Administration and Management in Criminal Justice
Chapter 4: Environmental Influences

Influence #1: Funding

Defined: different methods of financially supporting criminal justice organizations and operations

Funding challenges in political environments

How do agencies comply with new mandates and enforce new laws without additional funding?

Example: Some states require police departments to keep accurate records on the race, age, and ethnicity of all drivers stopped for traffic infractions. The new mandate is not necessarily accompanied by new funds.

Administration and Management in Criminal Justice
Chapter 4: Environmental Influences

Influence #1: Funding

Additional Challenges

Funding/resources are limited

Agencies develop budgets but are not always fully funded

Agencies compete with one another for monies

Example: as crime increases, police departments and probation offices might both argue that they are in the best position to address the problem; they are tackling the same problem but are also competing for the same funds

Territorial jealousy: stifles innovation, coordination, and information sharing

Administration and Management in Criminal Justice
Chapter 4: Environmental Influences

Influence #1: Funding

Sources

Government grants

Research: does D.A.R.E work?

Demonstration: is it feasible to adopt D.A.R.E.?

Project: let’s adopt D.A.R.E.?

Formula: money allocated based on certain measures (e.g., crime rates)

Block: federal money, redistributed by states

Foundations

Non-profit: Ford Foundation, Gates Foundation

Corporate: Walmart, JCPenney

Private individuals

Administration and Management in Criminal Justice
Chapter 4: Environmental Influences

Influence #2: Technology

Public expects technologies to aid in detection and prevention of crime

Examples

911 system

Electronic monitoring devices

Less than lethal weapons

In-car video cameras

Administration and Management in Criminal Justice
Chapter 4: Environmental Influences

Influence #2: Technology

Challenges

Employing well-trained workers capable of using technology

Technical know-how

Procedures and laws related to new technology

Must overcome organizational inertia

Cost

Equipment

Training

Creation of new crime types

Internet crimes

Identity theft

Administration and Management in Criminal Justice
Chapter 4: Environmental Influences

Influence #3: Culture and Demographics

Demographics: population characteristics

Age

Race

Gender

Socioeconomic status

These can affect system operations

Example 1: Age distribution of population determines size of at-risk population

Example 2: Some have suggested that decline in homicides during 1990s is due, in part, to the decline in marriage rates

Administration and Management in Criminal Justice
Chapter 4: Environmental Influences

Influence #3: Culture and Demographics

Culture

“Society’s shared attitudes, values, purposes, and routines” (p. 113)

Problems

Culture conflicts: two groups hold different cultural beliefs that disagree with one another

Example: Gambling tolerated by some and frowned upon by others

Culture gaps: political and legal approaches are not in line with the dominant cultural beliefs of citizens

Example: A shift in dealing with drug offenders may be underway; politicians are largely punitive but some citizens view the problem from a medical standpoint

Administration and Management in Criminal Justice
Chapter 4: Environmental Influences

Influence #4: Legal pressures

The law is a powerful force

Defines what behaviors are criminal

Defines relationships among parties

Restricts the behavior of criminal justice actors

Types of law

Common law: based on traditions

Statutory law: defines crimes and prescribes punishments

Procedural law: regulates how offenders are processed

Case law: influence operations and policies

Civil law: address private wrongs

Administrative law: used by governments to control agency actions

Administration and Management in Criminal Justice
Chapter 4: Environmental Influences

Influence #5: Unions

“Groups of employees that decide to bargain collectively through majority vote for improvements in their jobs such as increases in wages, benefits, and better working conditions” (p. 123)

General procedures

Develop contract through negotiations with management binding management and labor

Covers defined period

Addresses issues such as due process, pay and benefits, grievance procedures, work hours, etc.

Administration and Management in Criminal Justice
Chapter 4: Environmental Influences

Influence #5: Unions

Criticisms

Reduce the authority of the agency leader

Example: Some contracts require chiefs/commissioners to consult with union before making policy decisions

Indicate bad management practices

If employees were well-treated, would there be a need for a union?

Lack accountability

May get a say in policy but are not elected or appointed (accountable to others) like agency leaders

Administration and Management in Criminal Justice
Chapter 4: Environmental Influences

Influence #5: Politics

Elected/appointed status of many officials (e.g., sheriffs, judges, prosecutors, police chiefs)

Must assure election/re-election

Legislation

New laws shape behavior of system actors; get tough legislation

Budgetary decisions made by legislatures

Funds affect programming

Pressures by special interest groups

MADD, victim advocate groups, etc.

Administration and Management in Criminal Justice
Chapter 4: Environmental Influences

Administration and Management in Criminal Justice
Chapter 5: Conflict, Power, and Ethical Issues

Organizational Conflict

Conflict is natural in many organizations and not always bad

Administration and Management in Criminal Justice
Chapter 5: Conflict, Power, and Ethical Issues

Conflict is Positive
Conflict is Negative

Allows for different opinions to be recognized

Affects organizational performance

Promotes innovation in problem solving

Contributes to miscommunication

Expands the worldview of workers

Reduces trust between workers

Administration and Management in Criminal Justice
Chapter 5: Conflict, Power, and Ethical Issues

Pondy’s Organizational Conflict Model

Stage 1: Latent Conflict: conditions are present

Stage 2: Perceived Conflict: one party to conflict recognizes conflict

Stage 3: Felt Conflict: parties to conflict begin to feel tension or other emotions

Stage 4: Manifest Conflict: conflict is translated into various behaviors

Stage 5: Conflict Aftermath: the resolution of the conflict (it may still linger)

Administration and Management in Criminal Justice
Chapter 5: Conflict, Power, and Ethical Issues

What Causes Conflict?

Personality defect theory (people-focused conflicts)

Some people are inherently trouble makers who cause conflict

Only explains a small amount of all conflicts

Frustrations from work environment (tend to be issue-focused conflicts)

Personal differences

Incomplete or inaccurate information

Task and team interdependence

Goal incompatibility

Scarcity of resources

Administration and Management in Criminal Justice
Chapter 5: Conflict, Power, and Ethical Issues

Work Environment Sources of Conflict

Personal differences

People see the world differently due to varied experiences, training, etc.

Example: one law enforcement officer has a law enforcement orientation while another has a service orientation

Incomplete or inaccurate information

Information gap

Example: police officer does not attend community meetings due to lack of awareness of what community policing actually is

Administration and Management in Criminal Justice
Chapter 5: Conflict, Power, and Ethical Issues

Work Environment Sources of Conflict (cont’d)

Task and team interdependence

Resources are shared

Output of one task becomes input for another

Example: prosecutors decide not to charge low-level offenders arrested by police (output of police is input for prosecutor)

Goal incompatibility

Goals of one group conflict with goals of another

Example: victim-witness counselor wants to protect witness from painful emotions of testifying but prosecutor needs testimony for conviction

Administration and Management in Criminal Justice
Chapter 5: Conflict, Power, and Ethical Issues

Work Environment Sources of Conflict (cont’d)

Scarcity of resources

Resource allocation, when such resources are limited, often generates conflict

Example: patrol officers are upset that money is used to upgrade computers for detectives rather than equipment for patrol cars

Administration and Management in Criminal Justice
Chapter 5: Conflict, Power, and Ethical Issues

Conflict Management Strategies
Administration and Management in Criminal Justice
Chapter 5: Conflict, Power, and Ethical Issues
Low High
Assertiveness (own needs)
Low High
Cooperativeness (other’s needs)

Administration and Management in Criminal Justice
Chapter 5: Conflict, Power, and Ethical Issues

Conflict Management Strategies: Prosecutors and Defense Attorneys

Avoiding

Prosecutor might simply not do his/her job; apathetic

Competing

Prosecutor would work to secure a conviction and the sentence he/she envisions for defendant

Accommodating

Prosecutor might dismiss some or all charges at request of defense attorney

Compromising

Prosecutor still wins but does not get full sentence for defendant or conviction on all charges; defense attorney does not get acquittal but gets client a deal (plea bargaining)

Collaborating

Is there an option where both the defense attorney/defendant and prosecutor have their goals FULLY satisfied?

Administration and Management in Criminal Justice
Chapter 5: Conflict, Power, and Ethical Issues

Promoting Collaboration

Focus on bigger goals

Rather than argue over who gets credit for the arrest, focus on the larger goal of public safety

Improve communications

Share information to prevent miscommunication

Develop negotiating skills of employees

Helps avoid non-collaborating conflict management strategies such as competition

Administration and Management in Criminal Justice
Chapter 5: Conflict, Power, and Ethical Issues

What is power?

“Ability of an individual or a group to influence the behavior or action of another individual or group to do something they would not have done otherwise” (pg. 140)

Power can be exercised upward, downward, or horizontally

In other words, it is not just about superiors controlling subordinates

Administration and Management in Criminal Justice
Chapter 5: Conflict, Power, and Ethical Issues

What is Personal Power?

Power is derived from an individual’s personal characteristics

Sources

Expertise

A defense attorney’s knowledge and abilities allows her to convince a client to accept a plea offer

Personal attraction

A charismatic SWAT team leader has the attention of his subordinates

Personal effort

A warden is able to control subordinates due to her tendency to walk the prison corridors and assist staff

Legitimacy

The police chief’s emphasis on aggressive law enforcement is easily accepted by officers since it fits in with the police subculture

Administration and Management in Criminal Justice
Chapter 5: Conflict, Power, and Ethical Issues

What is Position Power?

Power derived from the position one is holding in an organization

Sources

Formal position

A correctional officer has power over inmates simply by virtue of his position

Discretion

A precinct commander is able to use her judgment on how to deploy resources without consulting the commissioner

Centrality

A correctional sergeant holds great power because of her central location in the communication networks and vertical hierarchy

Relevance

A department’s grant officer obtains additional power in times of budgetary crisis

Administration and Management in Criminal Justice
Chapter 5: Conflict, Power, and Ethical Issues

How Can a Worker Increase Their Power?

Dependency

An individual or unit has power if others are dependent upon it

Example: A crime lab has some degree of power over a police department due to dependencies

Control of resources

Those who control flow of resources have power

Example: County government officials have power over the local sheriff’s department since it funds the department’s operations

Administration and Management in Criminal Justice
Chapter 5: Conflict, Power, and Ethical Issues

How Can a Worker Increase Their Power? (cont’d)

Centrality

The importance of the activity performed

Example: A police union gains leverage by having officers systematically call out of work sick

Nonsubstitutability

The task cannot be performed by others

Example: The analytical/statistical skills of a crime analyst are not easily replaced by someone else in the police department

Reduce uncertainties

Help department predict and cope with future challenges

Example: strategic planning unit is essential for an agency to see long term trends

Administration and Management in Criminal Justice
Chapter 5: Conflict, Power, and Ethical Issues

Decision-Making

Employees of the criminal justice system exercise their judgment/discretion on a regular basis

How do we encourage ethical decision making?

Right v. wrong

Administration and Management in Criminal Justice
Chapter 5: Conflict, Power, and Ethical Issues

Personal Ethics

Everyone has some set of beliefs and values framework that guides their decision making

Two perspectives

Ethical absolutism: moral code is unchanging and the same for all people at all times

Ethical relativism: moral code varies from person to person and from place to place

Implications

If ethical relativism is supported, personal attitudes and values are paramount

Some research suggests that police officers start with an orientation of ethical absolutism and then change to one of ethical relativism

Administration and Management in Criminal Justice
Chapter 5: Conflict, Power, and Ethical Issues

Promoting Ethical Decision-Making

Focus on the organizational culture

Code of ethics identifying values and standards of organization

Modeling

Supervisors must model appropriate conduct for subordinates

Set reasonable goals

Encourage workers to achieve rather than engage in misconduct to achieve goals

Use external individuals and groups

Whistle blowing

Administration and Management in Criminal Justice
Chapter 5: Conflict, Power, and Ethical Issues

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