Posted: February 28th, 2023

Professional Development

How can we develop ourselves personally & professionally in counseling?

Journal of Counseling & Development ■ January 2014 ■ Volume 92 3

Research

© 2014 by the American Counseling Association. All rights reserved.

Received 09/06/12
Revised 02/12/13

Accepted 02/18/13
DOI: 10.1002/j.1556-6676.2014.00124.x

Julie M. Moss, Hand Middle School, Columbia, South Carolina; Donna M. Gibson, Department of Educational Studies, University of
South Carolina; Colette T. Dollarhide, Department of Counselor Education and School Psychology, Ohio State University. Donna M.
Gibson is now at Department of Counselor Education, Virginia Commonwealth University. This research was made possible through
partial funding provided by a grant from the Chi Sigma Iota Counseling Academic and Professional Honor Society International.
Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Donna M. Gibson, Department of Counselor Education, School of
Education, Virginia Commonwealth University, PO Box 842020, Richmond, VA 23284-2020 (e-mail: dgibson7@vcu.edu).

Counselor professional identity encapsulates the idea of con-
tinuous growth and development within a certified context.
Counselor growth and development is a continuous and lifelong
process (Borders & Usher, 1992). It begins as individuals enter
counseling training programs and continues until they retire.
Professional identity is part of being a counselor (Gazzola &
Smith, 2007; Gibson, Dollarhide, & Moss, 2010) and is the
integration of the professional self and personal self (including
values, theories, and techniques). Personal attributes combine
with professional training as a counselor forms his or her own
professional identity. Within an ethical context, counselors rely
on their professional identity as a frame of reference as they
make decisions regarding their work with clients (Brott & My-
ers, 1999; Friedman & Kaslow, 1986; Skovholt & Rønnestad,
1992). In essence, counselor professional identity includes
interpersonal and intrapersonal dimensions.

Interpersonal dimensions of professional identity involve
one’s relationship to society and the professional community
(Gibson et al., 2010). The professional community includes
professional organizations, licensing boards and credentialing
bodies, and accrediting agencies. Interpersonal aspects also
involve the professional community of counselors. Emerg-
ing counselors learn about the culture of the counseling
profession through supervision and experience (Dollarhide
& Miller, 2006).

Professional identity is also shaped from within a person
and comprises the intrapersonal dimensions of professional
identity (Gibson et al., 2010). Personal definitions of coun-
seling evolve, locus of evaluation changes, and reflection

Professional Identity Development:
A Grounded Theory of Transformational
Tasks of Counselors
Julie M. Moss, Donna M. Gibson, and Colette T. Dollarhide

The purpose of this qualitative grounded theory study was to investigate practicing counselors’ professional identity
development at nodal points during their career. Through the use of 6 focus groups of beginning, experienced, and
expert counselors, 26 participants shared their experiences, and 6 themes emerged to form a theory of transformational
tasks of professional identity development. Through these tasks, counselors encountered issues of idealism toward
realism, burnout toward rejuvenation, and compartmentalization toward congruency.

Keywords: professional identity development, practicing counselors

becomes increasingly important as counselor identity is
solidified. New professionals move from an external to an
internal locus of evaluation and from a reliance on experts
to a reliance on their own experience and training (Auxier,
Hughes, & Kline, 2003; Brott & Myers, 1999; Gibson et al.,
2010; Skovholt & Rønnestad, 2003). The majority of research
pertaining to counselors’ identity development centers on the
professional identity development of counselors-in-training
rather than working professional counselors (Auxier et al.,
2003; Howard, Inman, & Altman, 2006; Gibson et al., 2010;
Nelson & Jackson, 2003; Woodside, Oberman, Cole, & Car-
ruth, 2007). Theories of identity development of counselors-
in-training (Auxier et al., 2003; Gibson et al., 2010) showed
that through experience, course work, and a commitment to
the profession, identity develops over time.

However, there is limited research about counselor identity
development at various points in the career life span. Mellin,
Hunt, and Nichols (2011) found that counselors believe their
work to be different from other helping professions and that
counselors’ identity focused on a developmental, prevention,
and wellness orientation. Several studies cite the need for
greater information about the development of professional
identity during the professional life span (Bischoff, Barton,
Thober, & Hawley, 2002; Brott, 2006; Brott & Myers, 1999;
Dollarhide, Gibson, & Moss, 2013; Gibson et al., 2010; Howard
et al., 2006; Rønnestad & Skovholt, 2003; Skovholt & Røn-
nestad, 1992). Rønnestad and Skovholt (2003) provided a phase
model that described “central processes of counselor/therapist
development” (p. 5) from the novice professional to the senior

Journal of Counseling & Development ■ January 2014 ■ Volume 924

Moss, Gibson, & Dollarhide

professional. The postgraduate professionals interviewed in
their cross-sectional, grounded theory qualitative study had an
average of 5, 15, and 25 years of professional experience with
doctoral degrees in professional psychology. On the basis of the
data, the following themes emerged: (a) There is an increasing
higher order integration of professional and personal selves;
(b) continuous reflection is required for optimal learning; (c)
an intense commitment to learning drives development; (d)
professional development is continuous, is lifelong, and can
be erratic; (e) clients are influential to counselor development;
(f) personal life experiences are influential to counselor devel-
opment; (g) interpersonal sources (i.e., mentors, supervisors,
counselors, peers, family) are influential to counselor develop-
ment; and (h) thinking and feeling about the profession and
clients change over time.

Conceptual Framework of Current Study
Although many of the professional identity development
studies in the literature are focused on one specific type of
population and at one point in time, a few longitudinal studies
in other disciplines indicate that there are specific influences
on professional identity development over time (Dobrow &
Higgins, 2005; Monrouxe, 2009). Rønnestad and Skovholt’s
(2003) work provided a foundation for the current study.
Because Rønnestad and Skovholt focused on postgraduates
with doctoral degrees in professional psychology, for the
current study, we determined that more research including
participants who were professional counselors (with and
without doctoral degrees) could determine if similar themes
are experienced. Hence, we created a series of four separate
cross-sectional studies to examine the professional identity
development of individuals in the counseling profession. The
four studies investigate counselors-in-training (Gibson et al.,
2010), practicing professional counselors, doctoral students
in counselor education programs (Dollarhide et al., 2013),
and counselor educators. No data were used more than once
in data analysis and reporting across the four studies. The
cross-sectional design allowed us to determine what transfor-
mational tasks were occurring for these groups of participants
and if longitudinal research was warranted for further study.

Transformational tasks describe the work counselors
must accomplish at each stage of their professional life span.
Counselors’ professional identity is transformed in response
to completing each task. For example, Gibson et al. (2010)
found three transformational tasks that counselors-in-training
must accomplish to develop a firm professional identity:
defining counseling, transitioning responsibility for growth,
and integrating a systemic identity. They found that course
work, experience, and commitment were significant events
as counselors-in-training moved from external validation to
self-validation. These results led us to question if the trans-
formation of counselor identity is mirrored in practicing
counselors. Therefore, we posed the following question in

our study: What is the process of counselors’ professional
identity development at nodal points in their career life span
as beginning, experienced, and expert counselors?

Method
For the current study, we used a grounded theory approach to
generate an explanation of the process of professional identity
development as it was viewed by the participants (Corbin &
Strauss, 2008). A grounded theory approach was most ap-
propriate for this study because it focused on developing an
explanation of a process that involved many individuals. Other
qualitative approaches did not allow a focus on the process.
All participants in the study had experiences that related to
professional identity development, and the research sought to
explain the process (Creswell, 2007). The characteristics of
grounded theory include the theory being grounded in data, use
of a constant comparative method, the use of memo writing by
the researchers, and theoretical sampling (Heppner & Heppner,
2004). The constant comparative method found in grounded
theory enabled us to identify similarities and differences be-
tween school and community-based counselors’ experiences.

Researchers and Trustworthiness

We were the primary instrument in the data collection. It is
especially important to recognize our assumptions and biases
in qualitative research because the data were filtered through
our lenses (Heppner & Heppner, 2004). We controlled for
this by first recognizing the assumptions and biases we held
relating to counselors’ professional identity development.

All three researchers are women. The first author, a middle
school counselor and doctoral candidate, had participated in
previous research relating to professional identity develop-
ment. She has 7 years of experience as a school counselor at
the elementary and middle school levels. The second author
has 13 years of experience as a counselor educator and 8 years
as a licensed professional counselor (LPC), and the third
author has 20 years of experience as a counselor educator
and 10 years as an LPC and school counselor.

When designing this study, we attempted to make the
study more rigorous. Acknowledging biases, using multiple
researchers during the coding process, and member checking
helped ensure the trustworthiness of data analyses. Because
this was a qualitative study, researcher biases were inherent.
Among our biases was the belief that counselor identity is
important to counselors and counselor educators. One of
our central assumptions relates to professional identity and
its progression during the course of one’s career. That is, we
believe that interactions with clients and colleagues, continued
professional development, successes, and failures shape how
counselors view themselves and their profession and that these
ideas evolved from the beginning of graduate school until the
present time. We anticipated that these ideas will continue to
change as counselors’ professional growth occurs.

Journal of Counseling & Development ■ January 2014 ■ Volume 92 5

Professional Identity Development

To control for biases and to embrace subjectivity, we took
field notes and wrote reflexive journals (Heppner & Heppner,
2004). After leaving the data collection sites, we used reflexive
memo writing to write about emotions and reactions during
the study. Memo writing was also used to write down ideas
about the evolving theory during the data analysis process.
Using three researchers during the coding process ensured
that the themes and process formed were grounded in data.
The use of multiple researchers added credibility by involving
multiple perspectives, opinions, and experiences.

Participants had the opportunity to review our preliminary
analysis and take part in member checking (Creswell, 2007).
Some participants who noted that they would be available
for follow-up questions were asked to review the initial data
findings. Preliminary data were presented to the participants
via e-mail.

Participants

We used stratified purposeful sampling to select participants
for the study. This type of sampling identified the subgroups
and allowed for comparison between the groups being studied
(Creswell, 2007). Using Rønnestad and Skovholt’s (2003)
stratified sampling method, we invited school and community-
based counselors (with an LPC or LPC intern credential) to
participate and divided them into groups based on years of
experience (i.e., 1–2, 5–15, and 20+ years). School counselors
were solicited through a state mailing list and through local
school districts. We obtained contact information for LPCs
in the area from the state’s Department of Labor and Licens-
ing. Also, we used contact information for graduates from a
local university.

Twenty-six participants met the criteria and were able
to participate in the study. Demographic information was
collected relating to participants’ ethnicity, gender, high-
est degree earned, and work setting. Of the 26 participants,
15 were school counselors and 11 were community-based
counselors. The majority of the participants were female (n =
21) and five were male. Twenty-two participants identified as
White and four participants identified as African American.
Their work settings varied among the groups. For the school
groups, four were elementary counselors, six were middle
school counselors, and five were high school counselors.
Among community-based counselors, four worked in private
practice; one worked in college counseling; two worked in a
hospital setting; and one each worked in a residential treat-
ment facility, a community college, a mental health center,
and an employee assistance program.

Data Collection

Questions were developed based on research on professional
identity development (Rønnestad & Skovholt, 2003) and
the focus group questions used in Gibson et al.’s (2010)
study. We designed questions to elicit participants’ experi-
ence of their professional identity development during their

career. The questions addressed the following: definition of
counseling and any changes over time, professional identity
and factors that influenced it (i.e., Define your professional
identity at the current moment), and needs to progress in
their professional identity (i.e., What do you think you need
to progress to the next level of development of your profes-
sional identity?). Data were collected through recorded focus
groups that were scheduled in advance. The goal of this
qualitative data collection was to capture rich descriptions
of the process of professional identity development that
accurately represented participants’ lived experiences. The
advantage of using focus groups for data collection is that
it is more “socially oriented, often creating a more relaxed
feel than individual interviewing” (Hays & Singh, 2012, p.
253). The combination of grouping participants by work set-
ting, years of experience, and focus groups promoted robust
exploration and processing of the topic. The processing that
occurred in a focus group was essential to spark additional
thoughts relating to professional identity. By hearing other
counselors’ experiences in similar work settings, participants
gained insight into the construct of professional identity and
could provide more meaningful answers to questions. Focus
group sessions lasted 60 to 90 minutes.

The focus groups were formed on the basis of participants’
experience and area of expertise. We avoided mixing people
with different expertise or work settings because the goal was
for all participants to feel comfortable sharing their thoughts
and feelings (Krueger & Casey, 2009). Being comfortable in
the group increases the likelihood of participant involvement.
The focus groups were formed and coded with letters A (for
school and community-based counselors with 1–2 years of
experience), B (for school and community-based counsel-
ors with 5–15 years of experience), and C (for school and
community-based counselors with 20+ years of experience);
this coding system is used in the Results section.

Data Analysis

After focus group interviews were completed, each session
was transcribed verbatim. We used manual line-by-line open
coding to focus on coding for differences based on years of
experience and work setting and looked for concepts, catego-
ries, and properties that characterized each level of experience
and setting. We agreed that participants did not differ on the
basis of work setting. The idea of professional identity was
conceptualized as a continuum (Strauss & Corbin, 1998).
The transcripts of counselors with 1–2 years of experience
and those of counselors with 20+ years of experience were
coded for concepts and categories to anchor the ends of the
continuum. Next, the transcripts of counselors with 5–15
years of experience were coded.

In axial coding, the categories were refined as we sought
to identify the causes, influences, outcomes, and conse-
quences of counselors’ identity development. Participant
transitions were noted that would be used in the construction

Journal of Counseling & Development ■ January 2014 ■ Volume 926

Moss, Gibson, & Dollarhide

of the grounded theory (Corbin & Strauss, 2008). Finally, we
used selective coding to develop hypotheses to connect the
ideas of professional identity development among counsel-
ors. A model or theory was developed from the information
gathered (Creswell, 2007) that suggested transformational
tasks specific to practicing counselors. These transforma-
tional tasks were different from the transformational tasks
discovered in the previous studies (Dollarhide et al., 2013;
Gibson et al., 2010).

Results
The findings from the analyses suggested that six themes were
influential to counselors’ professional identity development:
(a) adjustment to expectations, (b) confidence and freedom,
(c) separation versus integration, (d) experienced guide, (e)
continuous learning, and (f) work with clients. Within three
of the themes—adjustment to expectations, confidence and
freedom, and separation versus integration—there was move-
ment as counselors gained experience working. The other
three themes—experienced guide, work with clients, and con-
tinuous learning—were catalysts for the movement that took
place. Although the process was different from the process
for counselors-in-training (Gibson et al., 2010), there were
transformational tasks completed by counselors during nodal
points in their counseling career that developed their profes-
sional identity. Within each of the groups, or career life stages,
there was a transformational task that enabled the counselor
to continue to grow and develop professionally (see Figure 1).

The three tasks were idealism toward realism, burnout toward
rejuvenation, and compartmentalization toward congruency.
Counselors were able to accomplish these tasks through the
processes of continuous learning, work with clients, and help
from an experienced guide. In this section, the results of the
themes with counselors’ quotes are presented. The section
ends with an explanation of how the themes are integrated
into the transformational tasks in the professional identity
development of counselors.

Participants were identified with anonymous codes based
on the group they were in: A = beginning counselors with
1–2 years of experience; B = experienced counselors with
5–15 years of experience; and C = expert counselors with
20+ years of experience. As mentioned earlier, participants
did not differ by work setting; therefore, school counselors
and community-based counselors are combined. Within each
group, participants are assigned an identifying number (1, 2,
3, etc.). For example, C2 is the second counselor in the group
of expert counselors with 20+ years of experience.

Themes and Theory

Adjustment to expectations. This theme represented the
counselors’ perceptions of their own expectations as coun-
selors versus the expectations others had of them in this role.
Counselors, especially beginning and experienced counselors,
expressed frustrations about their work environment. Beginning
counselors found reality different from the idealized role they
had imagined. As years progressed, this frustration led to coun-
selors in the middle of their career life span feeling dissatisfied

FiGurE 1

Professional identity Development Model of the Transformational Tasks of Counseling Practitioners

i

External
Validation

Experienced
guide

TIME

ii

Experience and
Professional
Development

• Continuous
learning

• Working with
clients

iii
Self-Validation

• Realistic sense
of work

• Rejuvenation
• Congruency of

work and life

AT
T

IT
U

D
E

T
O

W
A

R
D

W
O

R

K

E
N

E
R

G
Y

F
O

R
W

O
R

K

IN
T

E
G

R
AT

E
D

P
E

R
S

O
N

From idealism To realism

From burnout To rejuvenation

From compartmentalization To congruency

Transformational Tasks for Practitioners

Journal of Counseling & Development ■ January 2014 ■ Volume 92 7

Professional Identity Development

with their jobs. Counselors were asked how their definition of
counseling had changed for them, when it had happened, and
if working as a counselor was what they imagined it would be.

Beginning counselors grappled with the realization that
the realities of the workplace were different from graduate
training. One beginning counselor said, “It is one thing when
you are a student and there is someone actually kind of guid-
ing you but when you are out there doing it on your own, that
has definitely been an eye-opener” (A3). The idealized view
counselors had developed during training was different from
their actual job setting. Another beginning counselor stated,
“Now that I am actually in the school system, it is a little bit
different” (A2). These counselors reported feeling frustrated
as they recognized the difference.

Counselors expressed frustration with noncounseling
duties, administrative tasks, and paperwork. They reported
realizing how these other tasks interfered with their actual
counseling. As one beginning counselor explained, “I can’t
really get done what I want to get done and be as effective
as I can be because I am constantly doing other things like
paperwork” (A2). The counselors felt that these other or-
ganizations were dictating the services they provided and,
as a result, defined counselors’ identity. An experienced
counselor said,

Where I work it is almost like the establishments that we work
for really are defining our professional identity. . . . Insurance
dictates what kind of crisis a patient really needs to be having
in order to have the service they will pay for. (B13)

Experienced counselors were tired after years of confront-
ing the same struggles and were in need of rejuvenation. One
counselor shared,

I guess at this point in my career, I am feeling a bit I don’t
know if burned out is the word but I have gotten to where
I am used to doing the same thing. . . . I feel like I used to
have a lot more passion or hope than I do at this point. (B5)

After years of confronting these realities, expert counselors
felt continued frustration, which led to job dissatisfaction.

Confidence and freedom. As participants discussed how they
felt as counselors and what they needed to progress to the next
level of development in their professional identity, beginning
counselors expressed emerging doubts about their abilities and
desired more confidence. As these counselors gained experi-
ence, they felt more confidence and freedom in acknowledging
their limitations. A beginning counselor captured the insecu-
rities of new counselors by saying, “I feel like I have to put
up this, be as professional as I can be and you know talk as
technically as I can about what I do and what I am doing” (A4).
At the beginning stage of the counseling profession, there was
recognition that confidence struggles were part of the process.
Another beginning counselor said, “I almost think it is probably

a good place not to feel comfortable. . . . I definitely would like
to feel really confident. It’s all a process” (A5).

Whereas beginning counselors struggled to have confi-
dence within their professional role, experienced counselors
had gained confidence and felt freedom in recognizing their
limitations. One experienced counselor stated,

Early on when I was scared, I was fearful and not confident
. . . but for me now, I do think that it is probably, it’s really
awesome. . . . I still screw things up. I am just brave enough
now to own up when I do. (B11)

With an increase in confidence and freedom, counselors
also appreciated the community of counselors that they used
for client referrals. Instead of feeling that they needed to
know everything, they developed a network of people who
supported their practice and their clients. This idea was de-
scribed by an expert counselor:

I also am appreciative of a network of folks who have a wider
range of skills in their specialties than I do and I feel much
more comfortable in my own skin saying, hey could you work
with this person. . . . I think there is a little bit more confidence
I have in relinquishing and not thinking I have to have all the
answers for everybody, every case. (C6)

Separation versus integration. In this theme, counselors
actively separated and integrated both personal and profes-
sional aspects of their lives into their professional identities.
When beginning counselors talked about their identity, they
spoke of separating work from other areas of their life. Upon
gaining experience, counselors developed a sense of their pro-
fessional self and personal self integrating into one identity.
As counselors talked about their definition of counseling and
how they had imagined counseling to be, it was evident that
change occurred over their professional life span. A beginning
counselor reported how she compartmentalized her roles:

I am also a [sports team] coach so I am in an out-of-counselor
role. I am not a counselor on the court. . . . You can’t be both
all the time. . . . I kind of turn it on, turn it off. (A2)

This counselor viewed counseling as something she
could leave once she stepped out of her office to assume
another role.

Counselors reported that they believed that this idea of
separation was part of their training. One experienced coun-
selor stated, “In school they teach you to leave it [work] and
take care of yourself, but it is hard when you are in it. . . . It
is hard to leave that office and go home” (B13).

Through more experience, counselors viewed the differ-
ent facets of their job as part of a larger purpose for helping
clients. An expert counselor said, “I think when I first started,
it used to be really compartmentalized . . . then like you said,

Journal of Counseling & Development ■ January 2014 ■ Volume 928

Moss, Gibson, & Dollarhide

jack-of-all-trades, you do whatever it takes to get that child,
do whatever you have to do” (C3). There was a realization
that clients are important, and there was a desire to give extra
effort to best help them.

Expert counselors reached a level of congruency with their
professional and personal selves. They were able to reflect and
see how personal experiences affected them professionally
and how professional experiences affected their personal life.
One expert counselor shared,

I think the thing that has shaped my life as a counselor is
probably my son’s death . . . my own grieving journey just
really brought everything out and I went back, I went head
long into training for the grief and loss. (C5)

Experienced guide. Counselors at all levels expressed the
importance of having a mentor, supervisor, peer supervision,
or some form of experienced guide to help them in their pro-
fessional development. Participants talked about the need to
learn from an experienced counselor when discussing what
they needed to progress to the next level of development of
their professional identity, experiences that had contributed
most to their professional identity, and experiences that had
resonated most with them as a counselor.

A beginning counselor looked for “someone to say I expe-
rienced the same thing and this is what I did” (A3). Another
beginning counselor spoke about the impact that a mentor
had on her professional development: “I don’t know where I
would be had I not had that mentor which has probably been
the most beneficial thing as far as my professional identity
goes and learning about who I am professionally” (A1). Be-
ginning counselors look to counselors with more experience
to give them ideas, advice, and support.

Peer supervision is another type of supervision that coun-
selors found beneficial. Within the relationship, counselors
assumed roles of both supervisor and supervisee, and there
was a recognition that counselors with varying years of expe-
rience brought strengths to the relationship. An experienced
counselor talked about the power of peer supervision:

There are three other counselors, so we have a lot of time
to talk about cases and support each other, so I think other
professionals who have been in it longer than I have and new
professionals that come in and have a new energy and a dif-
ferent idea about things. (B10)

The value in continuing a mentoring relationship was also
reported by expert counselors. One expert counselor discussed
the impact his mentor continues to have on him as a professional:

Watching him present, watching him work with families and
demonstrations, having a chance to affiliate with him. That it
continues to be kind of like, boy that’s sort of who, that’s the
arena I’d like to be when I grow up. (C6)

Continuous learning. Each group of counselors recognized
learning as a lifelong endeavor and discussed ways to acquire
additional professional knowledge. Counselors were energized
as they talked about what they needed to progress to the next
level of development of their professional identity; they also
spoke of learning from classes, conferences, and trainings.

Beginning counselors expressed excitement about the
vast amount of information in the field. For example, one
beginning counselor said, “I think that is exciting about our
profession because we have to stay somewhat fluid and just
keep on changing” (A1). Participants were comfortable with
the idea that they would have to continue to learn to continue
developing as a professional.

As counselors gained experience, their learning became
more focused on their areas of expertise and interest. An ex-
perienced counselor said, “I study, study, study, study because
I am always interested in what is working, and I am always
searching out what’s going to help [clients], and I use every-
thing” (B12). Participants reported a desire to study specific
topics that would best help their clients and the populations
that they work with daily. An experienced counselor talked
about wanting “training on specific things, bullying, ADHD
[attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder], autism” (B2).

Although they had many years of counseling experience,
expert counselors embraced the idea of continuous learning.
An expert counselor talked about his comfort level with
continuing to be a student at a conference:

They had all these labels and badges that you could attach
to your name tag, “Presenter,” or you know, “First Time At-
tendee,” and I don’t know whether it was what I wanted to be
as far as my next level, or if it was the contrarian in me, but I
picked up a “Student” badge and attached it to my name tag.
And actually I began to feel very, very comfortable with that.
There’s this, there is more for me to learn. (C6)

Conversations about additional educational experi-
ences energized counselors at all levels. For counselors,
learning was a lifelong endeavor because the f ield is
constantly evolving.

Work with clients. Clients provided the needed positive
reinforcements for counselors to do their job. A beginning
counselor stated, “I feel I am making a small difference and
constantly getting those reinforcers and motivators” (A4). Cli-
ents made the counselors’ learning, frustrations, and struggles
worthwhile. Participants were able to point to specific success
stories or instances of failure that had a lasting impact on
them professionally. Across all levels and work settings, work
with clients was most meaningful to counselors’ professional
identity development. Participants in every group discussed
their work with clients when asked about the experiences
that had contributed most to their professional identity, the
experiences that had resonated most with them, and how they
felt about themselves as counselors.

Journal of Counseling & Development ■ January 2014 ■ Volume 92 9

Professional Identity Development

Beginning counselors were surprised at the strength people
showed despite their circumstances. Instead of being the ex-
pert, counselors found themselves learning from their clients.
One beginning counselor said, “I have been surprised, which
I am ashamed to say, that I just discovered more about how
people are strong and resilient . . . nothing seems to have gone
well but they were just incredibly strong” (A7).

Experienced counselors were pleased when they saw
clients grow and reach their counseling goals. Termination
was viewed as a graduation from counseling and a time when
both the client and counselor were proud of themselves. An
experienced counselor shared,

I terminated [counseling] a young college girl whom I had
been working with for about two and half years. . . . When we
finally met for the last time last week, it was mixed feelings.
I was almost sad because I was saying good-bye to her, but
then I was very proud of her work, but then I was proud of
myself because I stuck with her and saw her through. (B13)

Success stories involved clients in crisis and times when
counselors were able to help. The counselors realized that they
had made a difference in another person’s life. For example,
one experienced counselor stated, “It has been the children
who have been sexually abused, or the children who have
had physical abuse or witnessed you know things that were
traumatic for them and I know that those children really, re-
ally need me” (B6).

Emergence of Theory

In analyzing the current data, we determined that the themes
found in the participants’ experiences were part of the trans-
formational tasks associated with counselors’ professional
identity development. Counselors’ professional identity was
transformed in response to completing each task. The three
tasks the practicing counselors worked to accomplish were
idealism toward realism, burnout toward rejuvenation, and
compartmentalization toward congruency (see Figure 1).
These tasks served as a foundation to the process reported
by the participants within the themes of adjustment to ex-
pectations, confidence and freedom, and separation versus
integration. As counselors talked about each of these areas,
they reported factors that prompted their movement. These
factors were the catalysts for a changing identity. The same
transformational process was used at each stage: work with
clients, experienced guide, and continuous learning. In es-
sence, the grounded theory of this study was based on the
transformational tasks of professional identity development
of counselors.

Beginning counselors’ idealistic views were confronted
with the reality of the work world. This transformational task
involved the themes of adjustment to expectations and confidence/
freedom. The task at this stage was for new counselors to
reconcile their idealized visions with reality. Participants

reported entering the workforce unprepared, and new coun-
selors often experienced disillusionment with their graduate
training (Skovholt & Rønnestad, 1992). As counselors worked
to accomplish the task, they experienced self-doubt and con-
fidence struggles. Other studies found that new counselors
lacked confidence and needed external validation (Auxier
et al., 2003; Brott & Myers, 1999; Skovholt & Rønnestad,
2003). Participants reported that external validation came
from experienced guides and clients. As counselors received
external validation from an experienced guide or a client and
gained additional knowledge, they were able to accomplish
this task. The challenge of this task was for counselors to
become realistic about their abilities and their role.

Experienced counselors were challenged with the task
of burnout toward rejuvenation, which also addressed the
theme of adjustment to expectations. Participants reported
feeling dissatisfied with their jobs after years of dealing
with continual frustrations. As Gibson et al. (2010) found,
counselors reported that the public had misperceptions about
the counseling profession. Daily, counselors are advocates
for the profession to educators and insurance companies,
and these other entities influence counselors’ role and affect
their identity (Brott & Myers, 1999). Nevertheless, there was
a sense that counselors came to terms with these frustrations
and found a way to move forward professionally. The cata-
lysts for this movement were continuous learning, work with
clients, and an experienced guide. Counselors in this study
were energized by continuing to learn. They reported that
learning new techniques, taking classes, or making a change
in their counseling approach rejuvenated their professional
outlook. Successes with clients made the frustrations worth-
while. Knowing that they had made a difference or saved a
life was the reinforcement counselors needed to continue to do
their job. Participants also discussed how support from other
counselors helped them move forward during stressful times.

The third transformational task challenged counselors to
move from compartmentalizing counseling to having a con-
gruent view of the self. This task included the themes sepa-
ration versus integration as well as confidence and freedom.
The movement from compartmentalization to congruency was
a slow process fostered by experiences with others (clients,
experienced guides, and learning opportunities). Through
these interactions and personal experiences, counselors ex-
perienced a merging of their professional and personal selves
into a congruent identity.

Participants reported viewing counseling as something
separate from other aspects of their lives. They wanted to keep
their professional and personal lives separate in order to have
balance. However, congruency was observed in expert coun-
selors. Skovholt and Rønnestad (1992) found an authenticity-
to-self in experienced counselors in which role, working style,
and personality complemented one another. Expert counselors
in the current study accepted that being a counselor was a
core part of who they were as a person. They were confident,

Journal of Counseling & Development ■ January 2014 ■ Volume 9210

Moss, Gibson, & Dollarhide

were able to find balance, and experienced the freedom to take
professional risks. With the freedom to refer clients to other
counselors came a recognition of the professional commu-
nity. In contrast to Gazzola and Smith (2007) and Gibson et
al. (2010), in the current study, counselors did not consider
the professional community as comprising only counselors.
Instead, they seemed to include other helping professionals
in the professional community, such as psychologists, social
workers, and educators. This suggests a broader view of the
professional community as counselors looked beyond the
counseling profession for support and information.

The expert counselors were aware of their limitations and
experienced freedom in knowing their limitations. Their per-
sonal and professional selves had merged to create a congru-
ent self in which life experiences and professional experiences
were valued. Friedman and Kaslow (1986) found that coun-
selors became authentic and congruent as their professional
and personal selves merged. Participants in the current study
understood the value of their life experiences, including their
religious beliefs, values, interests, and personal losses such as
divorce or death in shaping who they were as a professional.

Discussion
The themes reported in this study were found to be important
to counselors’ professional identity development. They pro-
vided information about the process of identity development
over the course of the professional life span. The findings
are consistent with previous studies, which have found that
students developed an idealistic view of counseling during
training (Cave & Clandinin, 2007; Nyström, Dahlgren, &
Dahlgren, 2008; Swennen, Volman, & van Essen, 2008;
Troman, 2008) and that counselors entered the workforce
with unrealistic expectations (Rønnestad & Skovholt, 2003).
Participants in the current study discussed how their precon-
ceived view of counseling was challenged by the realities of
the workplace environment. Also, counselors with 1–2 years
of experience reported confidence struggles and feelings of
self-doubt that are consistent with previous studies (Bischoff
et al., 2002; Rønnestad & Skovholt, 2003; Skovholt & Røn-
nestad, 1992; Woodside et al., 2007). It was observed that
confidence grew as counselors gained experience. This is
consistent with previous studies that found counselors gained
confidence through experience, successes, and earning respect
from others (Magnuson, Black, & Lahman, 2006; Magnuson,
Shaw, Tubin, & Norem, 2004; R. G. Smith, 2007; Swennen
et al., 2008). As counselors gained confidence, they reported
realizing that they could handle their job, experiencing free-
dom to make mistakes, and understanding their limitations.

In addition, the data support how counselors become
congruent as their professional and personal selves merge
(Friedman & Kaslow, 1986). Three of the themes—work with
clients, experienced guide, and continuous learning—proved
to be change agents as counselors developed. Clients provided

positive reinforcements for counselors to do their job, and suc-
cesses and failures shaped the counselors’ identity. Findings
support previous studies that found that successes and failures
with clients had a profound impact on counselors’ identity
(Bischoff et al., 2002; Brott & Myers, 1999). When counselors
realized that they helped someone, they were empowered; this
led to more confidence and energy. Previous studies found
that work with clients validated new professionals (Bischoff et
al., 2002; Rønnestad & Skovholt, 2003; Studer, 2007). Also,
previous studies have found that supervision was helpful in
developing a strong identity as a counselor (Bischoff et al.,
2002; Brott & Myers, 1999). Other studies (Cave & Clan-
dinin, 2007; Dollarhide & Miller, 2006; Magnuson, 2002;
Magnuson et al., 2006) found supervisors to be important
to new counselors as they adjusted to the counseling profes-
sion. Positive feedback helped validate them as professionals
(Cave & Clandinin, 2007). The current data support these
findings in addition to suggesting that supervision affected
counselors at all experience levels. Each group admitted that
they needed help moving forward, which is consistent with
Gibson et al.’s (2010) findings. Previous research indicated
that new counselors wanted to fill in knowledge gaps and that
they had the desire and excitement to learn (Nyström et al.,
2008; R. G. Smith, 2007).

Limitations and Implications
The results of this study may not be applicable to all
counselors because of the limited number of participants
found within focus groups. The study investigated the
experiences of 26 participants in the southeastern United
States. Cultural limitations may exist (McGowen & Hart,
1990; K. L. Smith, 2007) because most of the participants
in our study were White women and were not representative
of all counselors. Also, the use of focus groups to collect
data limited the amount of in-depth exploration individual
interviews may have provided. If participants had sensitive
or threatening input, they may have been hesitant to share
their perspective with their peers in a group setting. How-
ever, the author who conducted the interviews made efforts
to create a welcoming and open environment in which par-
ticipants felt comfortable sharing their experience. Future
studies can strive to have a more representative sample of
the counseling population from various geographic areas.
Additionally, the use of individual interviews may elicit
more in-depth information from interview content and ob-
servation. Furthermore, longitudinal research is warranted
because of the transformational tasks and processes that
occur within each task at each nodal point. Future research
in professional identity development needs to consider the
years of experience not captured in the current study. The
results of this study have implications for counselors-in-
training, counselor educators, counselors, supervisors,
professional organizations, and future research.

Journal of Counseling & Development ■ January 2014 ■ Volume 92 11

Professional Identity Development

First, counselor educators have the responsibility to
foster and develop the professional identity of counselors-
in-training (Council for Accreditation of Counseling and
Related Educational Programs, 2009). Counselor educators
can use the information about transformational tasks and
how to accomplish the tasks to better prepare emerging coun-
selors. When counselors-in-training enter programs, they
can be given assignments such as interviewing or shadowing
practicing counselors to gain a more realistic perspective of
the workforce. Also, counselor educators can give practical
perspectives by inviting guest speakers who are practicing
counselors into all classes. Counselor educators who are also
practitioners can use examples in their teaching from their
current practice to illustrate a reasonable view of counsel-
ing. In addition, counselor educators can strive to ensure
that practicum and internship experiences are realistic and
are best preparing counselors-in-training for the realities of
the work environment. Therefore, counselors entering the
workplace will have more reasonable expectations of the
counseling profession. They can also know what to expect
as they grow and develop within the profession. Realistic
expectations can lead to less frustration, which would help
both counselors and clients.

Second, this study provides counselors with a process
of their professional identity development. Recognition
of the transformational tasks can normalize the counselor
experience. There can be comfort in knowing that others
are facing the same issues and frustrations. Knowledge that
counselors at each stage face a similar struggle can lead to
greater peer support. As counselors feel self-doubt, burn-
out, or incongruence, they will know the tools (continuous
learning, work with clients, and experienced guide) to help
them work through their struggles.

Finally, the results of this study reinforce the benefits of
supervision at all levels of counseling. Counselors should be
encouraged to seek out an experienced guide to help them
navigate their professional growth. Also, supervisors can use
the knowledge about the struggles at each stage of develop-
ment to better support their supervisees. Supervisors can
use the information about the need for continuous learning
to help their supervisees by providing additional learning
opportunities. Supervisors can tailor their trainings to the
developmental needs of their supervisees.

Conclusion
Results of this study indicated that six themes were important
to counselors’ identity development: adjustment to expecta-
tions, confidence and freedom, separation versus integra-
tion, experienced guide, continuous learning, and work with
clients. In addition, a process emerged that included trans-
formational tasks at each professional life stage. This study
highlights the process of counselors’ professional identity
development and how it changes during the professional life

span. Identity development is a lifelong process. As counsel-
ors gain awareness of this process, they can be more effective
and experience greater job satisfaction.

References

Auxier, C. R., Hughes, F. R., & Kline, W. B. (2003). Identity de-
velopment in counselors-in-training. Counselor Education and
Supervision, 43, 25–38.

Bischoff, R. J., Barton, M., Thober, J., & Hawley, R. (2002). Events
and experiences impacting the development of clinical self
confidence: A study of the first year of client contact. Journal of
Marital and Family Therapy, 28, 371–382.

Borders, L. D., & Usher, C. H. (1992). Post-degree supervision:
Existing and preferred practices. Journal of Counseling & De-
velopment, 70, 594–599.

Brott, P. E. (2006). Counselor education accountability: Training
the effective professional school counselor. Professional School
Counseling, 10, 179–188.

Brott, P. E., & Myers, J. E. (1999). Development of professional
school counseling identity: A grounded theory. Professional
School Counseling, 2, 339–348.

Cave, M. T., & Clandinin, D. J. (2007). Learning to live with being
a physician. Reflective Practice, 8, 75–91.

Corbin, J., & Strauss, A. (2008). Basics of qualitative research (3rd
ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Council for Accreditation of Counseling and Related Educational
Programs. (2009). 2009 standards. Retrieved from http://www.
cacrep.org/doc/2009%20Standards

Creswell, J. W. (2007). Qualitative inquiry & research design:
Choosing among five approaches. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Dobrow, S. R., & Higgins, M. C. (2005). Developmental networks and
professional identity: A longitudinal study. Career Development
International, 10, 567–583. doi:10.1108/13620430510620629

Dollarhide, C. T., Gibson, D. M., & Moss, J. M. (2013). Professional
identity development of counselor education doctoral students.
Counselor Education and Supervision, 52, 137–150.

Dollarhide, C. T., & Miller, G. M. (2006). Supervision for prepara-
tion and practice of school counselors: Pathways to excellence.
Counselor Education and Supervision, 45, 242–252.

Friedman, D., & Kaslow, N. J. (1986). The development of profes-
sional identity in psychotherapists: Six stages in the supervision
process. In F. Kaslow (Ed.), Supervision and training: Models,
dilemmas, and challenges (pp. 29–49). London, England:
Haworth Press.

Gazzola, N., & Smith, J. D. (2007). Who do we think we are? A sur-
vey of counselors in Canada. International Journal of Advanced
Counselling, 29, 97–110.

Gibson, D. M., Dollarhide, C. T., & Moss, J. M. (2010). Professional
identity development: A grounded theory of transformational
tasks of new counselors. Counselor Education and Supervision,
50, 21–37.

Hays, D. G., & Singh, A. A. (2012). Qualitative inquiry in clinical
and educational settings. New York, NY: Guilford Press.

Journal of Counseling & Development ■ January 2014 ■ Volume 9212

Moss, Gibson, & Dollarhide

Heppner, P. P., & Heppner, M. J. (2004). Writing and publishing
your thesis, dissertation, and research: A guide for students
in the helping professions. Belmont, CA: Thompson Brooks/
Cole.

Howard, E. E., Inman, A. G., & Altman, A. N. (2006). Critical in-
cidents among novice counselor trainees. Counselor Education
and Supervision, 46, 88–102.

Krueger, R. A., & Casey, M. A. (2009). Focus groups: A practical
guide for applied research (4th ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Magnuson, S. (2002). New assistant professors of counselor educa-
tion: Their 1st year. Counselor Education and Supervision, 41,
306–320.

Magnuson, S., Black, L. L., & Lahman, M. K. E. (2006). The 2000
cohort of new assistant professors of counselor education: Year
3. Counselor Education and Supervision, 45, 162–179.

Magnuson, S., Shaw, H., Tubin, B., & Norem, K. (2004). Assistant
professors of counselor education: First and second year expe-
riences. Journal of Professional Counseling: Practice, Theory,
and Research, 32, 3–18.

McGowen, K. R., & Hart, L. E. (1990). Still different after all these
years: Gender differences in professional identity formations.
Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 21, 118–123.

Mellin, E. A., Hunt, B., & Nichols, L. M. (2011). Counselor pro-
fessional identity: Findings and implications for counseling
and interprofessional collaboration. Journal of Counseling &
Development, 89, 140–147.

Monrouxe, L. V. (2009). Negotiating professional identities: Domi-
nant and contesting narratives in medical students’ longitudinal
audio diaries. Current Narratives, 1, 41–59.

Nelson, K. W., & Jackson, S. A. (2003). Professional counselor
identity development: A qualitative study of Hispanic student
interns. Counselor Education and Supervision, 43, 2–14.

Nyström, S., Dahlgren, M. A., & Dahlgren, L. O. (2008). A winding
road: Professional trajectories from higher education to working
life—A case study of political science and psychology graduates.
Studies in Continuing Education, 30, 215–229.

Rønnestad, M. H., & Skovholt, T. M. (2003). The journey of the coun-
selor and therapist: Research findings and perspectives on profes-
sional development. Journal of Career Development, 30, 5–44.

Skovholt, T. M., & Rønnestad, M. H. (1992). Themes in therapist and coun-
selor development. Journal of Counseling & Development, 70, 505–515.

Skovholt, T. M., & Rønnestad, M. H. (2003). Struggles of the novice
counselor and therapist. Journal of Career Development, 30, 45–58.

Smith, K. L. (2007). The experiences of Deaf counselors in developing
their professional identity (Doctoral dissertation). Available from
ProQuest Dissertations and Theses database. (UMI No. 3255229)

Smith, R. G. (2007). Developing professional identities and knowl-
edge: Becoming primary teachers. Teachers and Teaching:
Theory and Practice, 13, 377–397.

Strauss, A., & Corbin, J. (1998). Basics of qualitative research:
Techniques and procedures for developing grounded theory.
Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Studer, J. (2007). Erik Erikson’s psychosocial stages applied to
supervision. Guidance and Counseling, 21, 168–173.

Swennen, A., Volman, M., & van Essen, M. (2008). The develop-
ment of the professional identity of two teacher educators in the
context of Dutch teacher education. European Journal of Teacher
Education, 31, 169–184.

Troman, G. (2008). Primary teacher identity, commitment and career
in performative school cultures. British Educational Research
Journal, 34, 619–633.

Woodside, M., Oberman, A. H., Cole, K. G., & Carruth, E. K.
(2007). Learning to be a counselor: A prepracticum point of view.
Counselor Education and Supervision, 47, 14–28.

Copyright of Journal of Counseling & Development is the property of Wiley-Blackwell and
its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the
copyright holder’s express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email
articles for individual use.